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By A.I. Makki
During the later part of the tenth century, the region of Central Asia had attained a high degree of economic prosperity, literary growth, and cultural development. Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Iraq ruled the Kath region. It was at this time, a boy called Muhammad was born in a Persian speaking Tajik family on the 3 rd of Dhu’l Hajj 362 A.H corresponding to 4 September 973 A.C. The family of this boy, later known throughout the Muslim world as Abu Rayhan Muhammad bin Ahmad al-Biruni was Tajik by race but Persian by culture.
The birthplace of Abu Rayhan al-Biruni is shrouded in mystery. His biographers suggest that he was probably born at Birun a suburb in the city of Kath. In those days, Kath was the capital of Gurganj, one of the regions of Khwarzim ruled by the Iraqi princes. The city of Khwarzim, which was twenty farsakh away from Kath, was the capital of the kingdom ruled by Ma’munid princes.
There are no records about the early life of Abu Rayhan or his education. It is presumed that he could have received his early education in the traditional Madrasah. In his later years, Abu Rayhan was fortunate to find a benevolent patron in Abi Nasr al-Mansur, a member of the royal house of Kath, and a scholar in his own right. The material assistance provided by Abi Nasr made the life of al-Biruni comfortable. With his needs cared for, the educational foundations of al-Biruni were strengthened.
Abu Rayhan al-Biruni was greatly interested in the physical, natural, and biological sciences. He was constantly in search of new information to add to his knowledge. In this process, he befriended many great scholars and teachers of his age. In this period, the city of Khwarzim had developed into a great center of mathematical studies. Translations had been done on various books by a scholar by name Musa bin Muhammad al Khwarzimi under the active sponsorship of the Kath rulers, which made his homeland a great center for such studies.
Abi Nasr Mansur had discovered the use of tangents and cotangents, which greatly accelerated trigonometrical calculations. The academic atmosphere of Khwarzim permeated with the study of mathematics and its allied subjects. Abu Rayhan, who had born with a keen analytical mind and with his comprehensive abilities, was quickly drawn to these studies which suited both his liking and temperament. Earlier to this, traveling in search of knowledge to distant places by scholars had been regarded as a part of education in the Muslim world. However, the rulers of Kath had established numerous rich libraries all over their kingdom which greatly reduced this need.
A noteworthy trait in Abu Rayhan’s character was his insatiable thirst for knowledge. He had developed an early interest in Indian sciences. His curiosity to learn more had led him on travels to many regions in western India. Over a period, his visits to north-west India had become sporadic and less frequent because of his preoccupation with his book al-Qanun al Masudi. Abu Rayhan had learnt all about India during his travels to western India and Kashmir but he was keen to visit the other centers of Indian learning in the eastern and southern parts of India.
There is very little known about the family of Abu Rayhan. It is possible that he was in someway freed from the burdens and responsibilities of parenthood early in his life, which made him lavish all his love on his studies and writing books. There is evidence suggesting that he was acquainted with the Greek language. His encyclopedic knowledge and proficiency in language could be gauged in his book Kitab al-Saydanah where he gives the names of medicinal herbs and drugs in Arabic and various other languages. He also had a fair knowledge of the language of the Roman Byzantine Empire.
He kept in touch with his contemporaries among the Syrian and Christian intellectuals to enhance his knowledge. One of them was the famous physician Abu Sahl Masihi, a Christian. Another Syrian Christian merchant had taught him the correct pronunciation and the Greek names of many medicines. His constant interaction with other scholars had brought him into the contact with Ibn Sina, an extraordinary scholar of high rating during those times.
Abu Rayhan was also acquainted with the existing Arabic translations of Indian works. He found them to be inadequate and defective. These errors in the original works led him to study the original Sanskrit books. When political events brought him into direct contact with the Hindus, he made the full use of this opportunity. He learnt Sanskrit at the age of forty-five. After a long period of study, he made himself proficient in the language. It is reported that he had a vocabulary of over 2,500 Sanskrit words. He collected books and hired the services of Hindu scholars to help him to understand the texts, without sparing money and effort. His studies, references, and renderings of the original Sanskrit works serve as useful material for any student of Sanskrit and Puranic studies.
Abu Rayhan had spent most of his life living in Khwarzim, Jurjan, and Rayy. During his stay in Kath, he had received patronage from the royal family. Among his mentors and guides, care was extended by Mawla Amir al-Mu’minin who had helped him further his academic career. The subsequent political upheavals in Kath forced him leave the kingdom and head for the city of Rayy. Deprived of the royal patronage, he encountered great hardships and lived a life of penury. Despite this, he was confident of his great talent and intellect. The other scientists mocked at his theories of the shape of the earth and its rotation, because of his poverty.
In the course of time, his financial status improved. Gradually, the scholars and scientists of Rayy accepted him into their fold. The city of Rayy had gained a reputation of being a great center of astronomy along with Baghdad and Khwarzim. Fakhr al-Dawlah (976 A.C -992A.C), who was ruling Rayy had extended his patronage in constructing an observatory in the city, where astronomical observations and calculations were carried out. After the death of Fakhr al-Dawlah, Abu Rayhan failed to secure the patronage of the reigning family that had succeeded to the throne. In the meanwhile, Shams al-Ma’ali had regained his lost kingdom of Jurjan and Tabaristan and hearing about the celebrated astronomer invited him to his court. He stayed for nearly a decade with his new patron. He had stayed in Rayy for three years.
In Jurjan, Abu Rayhan, famous as al-Biruni completed his famous book, Athar al-Baqiyah (Chronology) and dedicated it to his new patron, was also an author and a scholar. Shams al-Ma’ali greatly admired the genius of al-Biruni and invited to stay with him at his royal residence. Al-Biruni gratefully acknowledged the bounty of his patron and later dedicated another book by name Risalah al-Tajrid al-Sha’at. While at Jurjan, al-Biruni got an opportunity to conduct preliminary measurements of the earth’s latitude.
At that time, al-Biruni received an invitation from the ruler of Khwarzim, Abu al-Hasan Ali, who took a keen interest in surrounding himself with scholars of renown. The Khwarzim court possessed an outstanding group of scholars and Ibn Sina was one among them. Abu Nasr Iraq, a scholar of the court excelled in the field of mathematics; Abu al-Khayr Khummar in tibb (medicine); Abu Rayhan al-Biruni in astronomy; Ibn Sina and Abu Sahl Masihi in Greek philosophy.
These scholars were given all material assistance by the court to enjoy a carefree existence. They spent their time in producing highly academic dissertations, held discussions, and conducted research in their field of specialization. An atmosphere free of needs was created for the learned gathering of scholars of exceptional caliber to spur them into greater efforts. The genius of al-Biruni was recognized by the scholars and acknowledged by the royal court. The grand galaxy of scholars was eclipsed by the genius of Ibn Sina and al-Biruni.
After the death of Abu Hasan al-Ali, his younger brother, Abu al-Abbas, became the ruler of Khwarzim. He ruled the kingdom up to the year 1017 A.C. He tried to maintain the policies of his elder brother in matters concerning the state and the court. In due course of time, Abu al-Abbas was assassinated, and Mahmud Ghaznawi in retaliation of his brother-in-law’s death attacked and annexed Khwarzim. Ibn Sina and Masihi had left Khwarzim before the attack to seek employment elsewhere. Al-Biruni enjoyed greatly the confidence of Abu Abbas and gained access to the inner council of the ruler, who began depending on him for advice in matters concerning the state. He became his chief advisor and began to wield considerable political influence as well, but without formally being designated as a wazir, a privilege that he was never to hold again.
LIFE IN GHAZNAH
After the fall of Khwarzim, five thousand people were brought in captivity to Ghaznah. A few among them were sent as prisoners to India. For a time al-Biruni enjoyed the patronage and generosity of Mahmud Ghaznawi, who appreciated deeply the learning and genius of the scholar. After his death, his eldest son, Masud, became his benefactor. He treated him on a far superior level as compared to other scholars and enabled him to devote all his time for his studies by making him free from all economic anxieties or government duties, a privilege that was reserved only for a scholar of high learning and renown.
During his stay in Ghaznah, he set up an astronomical observatory and conducted experiments to measure the latitude of Ghaznah. In the year 1019 A.C and 1020 A.C, he started writing two treatises on mathematics which were titled as Istikhraj al-Awtar and Ifrad al-Miqal. He completed writing them in the year 1022 A.C. In the year 1025 A.C, he completed another book the Kitab al-Tahdid. He wrote the Kitab al-Tafhim in the year 1029 A.C. In the next year, Mahmud died and his famous book Kitab al-Hind was completed after the death of the Sultan.
VISITS TO INDIA
A study of al-Biruni’s life reveals that there were three periods from the year 1018 to 1030 A.C, during which his presence was not reported in Ghaznah. During these periods, al-Biruni visited India with the permission of the Sultan. Earlier to this, his stay in Kabul and Ghaznah had provided him with the opportunity to learn Sanskrit and other Indian dialects from the Persian knowing Hindu residents of Ghaznah. His intention was to learn the secrets of astronomy from the Indian astronomers. Al-Biruni was always on the look out for ways and means to increase his knowledge and he had been a keen student of the Indian astronomy from his early days. Over the years, his studies and constant visits to India, led him increase his knowledge about the subcontinent in a bewildering number of fields which included: grammar, literature, religion, astronomy, mathematics, beliefs, geography, etc.
He visited Multan the old pilgrim center of Hinduism, where he gained access to the books of the Hindu scholar Balabhadra. He also visited Sialkot and Nandana in search of knowledge from Kashmiri scholars, for Kashmir and Varnasi (Benares) were the two great centers of learning in North India. His purpose was to make Ghaznah the chief center of astronomical and scientific studies, including the studies of latitudes and longitudes from the knowledge gained during his stay in India. In Nandana, he had carried out experiments in measuring the earth’s surface by using the trigonometrical method.
Al-Biruni visited different cities of Punjab. In the direction of Kashmir, he went as far as the fort of Rajagiri situated near Mount Kularjak. The forts of Rajagiri and Lahore were strongly fortified and served as frontier posts of Ghaznah towards Kashmir. It was during these visits that al-Biruni came into contact with the Indian scholars. It is also possible that the scholar to have visited other towns nearby during the course of his journey. Traveling to these cities was by no means an easy task for the monsoon conditions and the floods in the seven rivers (Saptha Sindhu) made the journey difficult. Rains and the intense summer heat also deterred travelers from the cool regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia from journeying along this way.
After his return from India, he carried correspondence with leading Indian astronomers of that time and scholars of Kashmir who posed certain questions to him. These questions were posed to him only after his fame as the sagar (ocean) and as a wizard of knowledge had spread and possibly, when he had returned to Ghaznah after his trip to India. When he completed the Kitab al-Hind in the year 1030 A.C, his information about the latitudes and longitudes was limited to the towns of Punjab and Madhya Desha (modern Uttar Pradesh) only. However, he was constantly in search of new geodetical information and in his book Qanun al-Masudi one finds a mention of the southern cities of India like Tanjore, Rameshwaram etc.
IN THE SERVICE OF MAHMUD GHAZNAWI
In his books, he also corrects the image of Sultan Mahmud as an intolerant person, who suppressed Hindus and destroyed their temples. In fact, his aggrandizement in war was as manifest in the Muslim regions of Central Asia and Iran, as in India. He was a great conqueror, but he never destroyed any temples in peacetime. Records suggest that he was tolerant towards Hindus and they lived in Ghaznah, Kabul, and Punjab, without any apparent molestation and free from being forcibly converted into Islam. Some of them had found service with the Sultan. The most outstanding and unique proof of the Sultan’s care for his non-Muslim subjects was the issuing of a bilingual currency bearing inscriptions in both Arabic and Sanskrit. Some of the coins found bear the date 1021 A.C and 1028 A.C as the date of their issue. Mahmud also had a number of persons well versed in Indian languages employed in his court. One such person had translated the Hindi verse composed by Ganda, the Raja of Kalinjar in praise of the Sultan.
In the service of the court of Mahmud, al-Biruni was often called to give his opinions on difficult matters relating to astronomy. He was shown priceless gems for his opinion and evaluation. He was asked to interview embassies accredited to Ghaznah by other countries in the region. He made Ghaznah the leading center for astronomical and geographical studies. The thirteen years spent in the service of Mahmud contributed to the maturity of many of his scientific ideas and theories. Mahmud’s patronage had revived the fortunes of this great scientist and according to him, "helped him improve his dress and looks." Al-Biruni had a fair knowledge of astrology as it was practiced in those days. The rest of his life was spent in giving final additions to his books.
When al-Biruni was more than fifty years of age, his health deteriorated and he fell seriously ill. The reason for this could be the hardships he had to encounter during his travels to India and the intense amount of labor that he had put into his study of Indian sciences and the Sanskrit language. He became very weak and thin, but he overcame his illness, lived up to the age of 75, and was apparently able to finish most of his books.
THE PATRONGE OF MASUD GHAZNAWI
After the death of Mahmud on 30 th April 1030 A.C, the city of Ghaznah was ruled by Muhammad his youngest son. Later, Muhammad was overthrown from power and was imprisoned in Taginabad. In the year 1031, the eldest son, Masud, was crowned as the King of Ghaznah. The new Sultan was fond of astronomical sciences. Knowledge in the court of Masud was put on a very high pedestal. The best way of seeking favors from him was through knowledge. Al-Biruni found patronage under his rule and the Sultan made friends with him and he benefited greatly from his financial help. The scientist had devoted most of his life in studying mathematics and known through it, and therefore he decided to serve the Sultan by composing a magnum opus on astronomy, which he titled Qanun al-Masudi.
Masud was a keen learner and he enquired from al-Biruni the reason for the differences in the duration of the day and night in different countries, and the reason as to why the sun did not set at the poles. Al-Biruni wrote a book Kitab layl wa al-Nahar in Arabic in an easy language for the King to understand the astronomical sciences. Masud knew Arabic and was highly pleased with the book. It is said that on the completion of Qanun al-Masudi, the Sultan bestowed an elephant load of silver on the author. However, al-Biruni had become disinterested in material possessions and therefore returned it back to the King. He had become completely devoted to his studies and he went about on his task of acquiring knowledge with a single-minded concentration. His desire for long life was prompted less by the love for this world than by fear that he may not be able to finish all the tasks he had set out to accomplish as a seeker of knowledge.
After the death of Masud, his son Mawdud succeeded him to the throne. He was known for his justice and good character. Al-Biruni continued with his studies under his rule, living in comfort and respect in his court. Under his rule, al-Biruni wrote the book Kitab al-Jamahir fi’l Jawahar and dedicated another book called Kitab al-dastur to the new ruler.
DEATH OF A GENIUS AND SCHOLAR
It was during the time of King Mawdud that al-Biruni died on 11th September 1048C.E after living for thirty-one years under the patronage of the Yamini dynasty. Even during his last hours, his appetite for knowledge had not diminished. The Kitab al-Saydanah was written. When al-Biruni was nearing the end of his life, he employed a scribe to write the book as his eyesight was failing him.
Faqih Abu al-Hasan paid him a visit before his death and the great scientist did not want to pass his last moments in his life without learning something useful. He asked the faqih to tell him the account of jadat al-fasidah. He memorized it from the learned man and repeated it correctly after him. When Abu al-Hasan came out after meeting al-Biruni, he heard the wailings of women from inside. The great master had passed away taking his genius with him into the Universe beyond.
Last update : 15-09-2002 16:59
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